In this study, we tried to develop a theoretical framework based on the Schaefer model and establish bioeconometric models to estimate the index of fishery resources using cross-country macro data. The characteristics of our model are that we consider the effect of natural fluctuations of fishery resources over time (in...
The efficiency analysis literature has long acknowledged the difference between program/policy effects and relative efficiency effects. The use of incentive compatible policy has been an important research agenda for fisheries economists, and Canada uses an array of policies and regulatory tools to fulfill the objectives of their Fisheries Act. One...
The structure of wholesale and retail marketing catfish (Clarias gariepinus) were analysed in order to assess the degree of competition and understand the organization of the farm raised catfish (Clarias gariepinus) market in southwestern Nigeria, a major aquaculture fish producing area in Nigeria. The market was evaluated by considering the...
The security of world fish supply from wild fisheries and from aquaculture is an increasing concern due to dwindling yields from wild catch and undesirable ecological impacts of aquaculture. The extent to which aquaculture can substitute for fish from wild catch will depend on the productivity of aquaculture, which in...
The geoduck fishery in British Columbia has been managed by individual quotas since 1989. Individual
quotas have fostered a co-operative management approach in the fishery, which is implemented through a
non-profit society with membership made up of licence holders in the fishery. This non-profit society, the
Underwater Harvesters Association (UHA),...
Assuming externalities from aquaculture to fisheries, we use a Verhulst-Schaefer model of fish
population-dynamics and production, coupled with an aquaculture production model, to investigate
effects on open-access and rent-maximising fisheries. Externalities are modelled by letting carrying
capacity, intrinsic growth rate or catchability coefficient in the fishery depend on aquaculture production....
This paper sets out an evaluation of profitability differentials within shellfish farming activities of the
Mont-Saint-Michel Bay. The objective is to examine whether profitability differentials have
consequences in terms of economic dynamics and of management arrangements. The paper divides into
four parts. The first part presents a retrospective analysis of...
The advent of scientific shrimp farming in India during 1990-91 was a turning point of shrimp production
in the country. Though scientific shrimp farming system renders higher level of production than the
existing traditional farming system, it is subject to certain criticisms especially for generating negative
environmental externalities. The conversion...
The exploitation of aquatic food products has been very fundamental as a source of livelihood in
the Sub Saharan Africa in particular and the world in general. Global production of aquatic food
products totaled approximately 93.2 million metric tons in 1997 and sub Saharan Africa
contributed 3.7 per cent. For...
In natural resource economics, we sometimes observe a situation in which producers and consumers have
direct access to the factors of production or can use some consumable products with little or no
transformation. These goods are commonly referred to as “gifts of nature”. A factor of production is
considered a...
The success or failure of aquaculture heavily depends on how effectively to manage aquatic animal
diseases. In order to analyze the economic effects of aquatic animal disease control, the specific factors
and magnitudes of benefits and costs are identified with and without the proposed project for the disease
control. These...
A bio-economic model, based on Faustmann rotation, was developed to analyze the relevance of
removing thinning activities which are part of the dominant technology used in blue mussel production in
Canada. Removing these density control activities (thinning) seemed a profitable option to producers. It
was thought that this collector line...
In 1976 global exports for fish and fisheries products was approximately $8 billion. In 2000,
global exports exceeded $55 billion. The period between 1985 and 1995 witnessed the tripling
of global fisheries exports. This represents more than half of total value of global fisheries
production. Developing countries began to increase...
Economists have generated numerous studies analyzing how a move to rights-based fishery management from open-access management affects fish harvesters' behavior. Conversely, the impacts that such a change in management can have on fish processors has received relatively little attention. This paper presents a simple two-product processor supply model to show...
Wholesale demand systems for live reef food fish in Hong Kong are analysed using the Linear Approximate Almost Ideal Demand System (LA/AIDS). Results suggest that price elasticities of demand are inelastic, with relatively high-valued species exhibiting greater elasticity than relatively low-valued species. Cross price elasticities are negative suggesting that different...
The harvesting strategies in open access marine fishery and marketing patterns of marine products have
undergone rapid structural changes in the post liberalisation era of the Indian Economy. There is a
continuous increase in demand and price of the fish both in domestic and export markets and the thrust on...
This study addresses the matter of logistic improvement of live food fish trade by economic analyses of pertinent information provided by the live fish traders in 2004 on three species of live fish: sand goby, sea bass, and grouper. The analyses take into consideration the logistics cost, break-even point, market...
The sinking of the oil tanker the Prestige in November 2002 off the coast of Galicia in Spain had an
important social, environmental and economic impact. The aim of this paper is to carry out an initial
analysis of the costs relating to a halt in the activity of an...
The optimal harvesting time in a fish farm is analyzed in the paper. Fish population is assumed to be heterogeneous with respect to weight, so a distributed parameter dynamic model is considered. Theoretical and numerical results are obtained and compared with the ones concerning homogeneous fish cultures only. The results...
Shrimp farming in Iran is one of the fast growing segments of the economy. In 1994, around 1%
of Iranian shrimp production was farmed and by 2003 the share of shrimp farming increased to
60%. In spite of the fact that shrimp culture had relatively rapid growth in last decade,...
Key decision variables in aquaculture management are stocking level, feeding schedule, temperature
control and batch length. In many management problems with an infinite planning horizon, the aim is to
find the batch length which results in maximum return if the same batch length applies to all future
batches. This may...
Fishmeal is a critically important feed ingredient for use in animal (e.g., poultry and pork) and
aquaculture production (e.g., salmon, trout, and shrimp). There is concern that demand for fishmeal may
place additional stress on the world’s pelagic fisheries and may undermine the sustainability of some
aquaculture systems that rely...
Non-radial measure of technical efficiency of fish farms in Oyo State was examined using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). Use of the non-radial measures to calculate overuse of inputs by inefficient fish farmers was demonstrated and the potential for reducing inputs used by improving efficiency was evaluated. Ordinary Least Square (OLS)...
A community based sea urchin (Tripneustes gratilla) culture was chosen as an alternative livelihood by
fisherfolks of Nalvo, a fishing village along the South China Sea in Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur, Philippines.
The sea urchin culture was adopted among fishermen to augment their rapidly declining income from
fishing. The said...
Whatever the quantity and the rate of water utilization is, economic principles indicate that there will
always be other water utilization methods which might increase the efficiency of the use of this resource.
Due to the geo-climatic position of Iran, this country finds itself in a water deficit situation as...
Global aquaculture production increased with an average rate of 10% per year since 1990 and 90% of
aquaculture production comes from developing countries thus providing livelihood and income especially
to marginal groups who have limited access to resources such as agricultural land and financial capital.
Geographical information systems (GIS) based...
The world’s output of farmed fish has grown steadily over the past two decades or so. Most
notably in the UK, since the mid 1980’s, a rapid increase in farmed salmon production has taken
place. Given that many of the world’s oceans are overfished, many see aquaculture as a method...
The experiences on reproductive management of native specie such as Petenia splendida (Tenhuayaca) in the last four years in Tabasco, Mexico has generated enough information to allow the development of a technological package for supporting sustainable rural production, particularly in areas where most of the population belongs to ethnical groups....
Although European fish consumption is increasingly dependant on aquaculture products given the
decrease of worldwide fisheries landings, the image of farmed fish is more and more controversial. This
paper aims at assessing the importance of farmed fish in the European seafood consumption, as well in
terms of image and perception...
Freshwater fish species and Baltic salmon are important to small-scale fisheries in Finland and Sweden.
The formerly local markets for these species have expanded as the food trade has been opened up
to international competition. In this study we use cointegration analysis to test the spatial integration of
freshwater fish...
Globalisation continues to impact the fisheries sector, aided by international governance frameworks in fisheries production and trade. Within these frameworks, tensions exist between trade facilitating measures and trade restricting measures. For example, UNCLOS extended Exclusive Economic Zones to 200 miles, resulting in a significant increase in volume and trade in...
France is Europe's largest market for salmon, close to saturation for traditional products but open to opportunities for differentiated items. Over the last ten years, the supply of salmon-based products has moved from basic items to more sophisticated ones. Processing is one way of turning the product into what consumers...
This paper discusses sustainable development of Yemeni fisheries towards achievement of Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and stakeholder aspiration. Yemen is considered a Least Developed Country ranking 148 among 174 countries in terms of the Human Development Index. In terms of food security, Yemen is classified as a Low-Income and Food...
Three case studies were included in a study on fishing vessels, most of which use trawl gear in demersal
fisheries. The case studies include the French Bay of Biscay bottom-trawlers, the English beam trawlers
fishing in the English Channel, Celtic Sea and North Sea, and the Basque trawlers fishing in...
The objective of the paper is to briefly present a comparative analysis of trends in the characteristics of
selected European fleets, observed over the last fifteen years, as an introduction to three empirical studies
of the behavioural determinants of these trends. The analysis presented aims at (i) describing changes
observed...
This paper provides a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) assessment model for a single gear, multi-species fishery in South Korea. To estimate appropriate Allowable Biological Catch (ABC) of mackerel and jack mackerel caught by the large purse seine fleet in the territorial waters of South Korea, the model uses an extended...
After 1950 traditional herring fisheries were revolutionized by a new technique: sonar, power block, larger
nets and bigger boats. As a result all major herring stocks in the North East Atlantic Ocean collapsed. The
most dramatic decline was that of the Atlanto-Scandian stock between Iceland and Norway from millions
of...
Unfortunately, most of the stocks are damaged by natural disasters or human activities and rebuilding the
stock are urgent requirements. Until now, in the stock management, some policies are commonly believed
to valid but have not been confirmed. A simulation model of the population dynamics incorporating
uncertainty has been already...
The direct economic values of aquatic resources used in various livelihood activities by
households in selected rural villages of Cambodia were estimated using the net economic value
approach. Data utilized were from 540 aquatic resources dependent households from 3 provinces
gathered using household survey, longitudinal monitoring and participatory rural appraisal...
Tuna, after shrimps, forms the most valuable seafood product in both export and domestic market in Sri Lanka. The
first section of this paper discusses the present status of tuna industry in Sri Lanka and the behavior of export
markets. Secondly, this paper analyzes the impact of technological innovation, effort...
If a scientist can predict the weather (poorly)
Why cannot he predict fish yields (yet more poorly)? – a clerihew by Chris Corkett.
Recent long term historical studies of commercial fisheries have pointed to a well established pattern of overfishing. Under the principle of transference – what is true in...
One of the major sectors of Bangladesh agriculture is represented by the fisheries sector. Being a deltaic land
with numerous rivers and inland haors and beels (lakes and lowland areas of considerable size), and also ponds
that are dug in populated areas for the purpose of bathing, washing and often...
Finnish fish markets have traditionally been supplied by domestic wild fish species: Baltic herring, salmon and several freshwater species. Nowadays, farmed salmon and rainbow trout dominate the market and wild-caught species are moving to niche product segment. In this paper we examine the market integration of Finnish fish markets. We...
This paper explores the reasons why the ties between harvesting and processing have been severed in the
Icelandic fisheries in recent decades, and traces the role played by better transport, the emergence of
domestic wet-fish markets, and the introduction of freezing trawlers, as well as other factors in this
development....
This study analyses seafood consumption at home in Spain using three different cross sections (1980,
1990, and 1998). Price indices for seafood and other items are calculated for each household. The
empirical analyses consists of the estimation of double hurdle models of seafood consumption for each
survey, separately. Socio-economic variables...
The purpose of this study is to discuss, develop and test the relationship among perceived quality
performance, consumer satisfaction and two different format of loyalty toward seafood. We frame our discussion
with the purpose of drawing together streams from the quality-satisfaction research, loyalty literature, attitude
research and from research on...
This paper considers the implications of the sustainability agenda for seafood processors
in the UK. A systems approach, using the value chain system as the conceptual
framework, is adopted to capture the multifaceted and often subjective nature of
‘sustainability’ and accommodate the changing nature of competitive advantage. It is
concluded...
Linear approximate almost ideal demand system was employed to estimate demand for Thai frozen shrimp in the United States of America, the main importing country for Thai frozen shrimp. Import demands for the same products from Bangladesh, China, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Mexico, and Vietnam were simultaneously estimated to compare with...
This paper re-examines the evidence of causality and price transmission between fish prices of main species landed into Piraeus (Greece) and Cornwall (UK). To complete the analysis of cointegration and causality, we use the data of Floros and Failler (2004) and Avdelas (2004). Our paper uses the Bivariate Generalised Autoregressive...
Recent work in the domain of fisheries ecology has shown that major changes are occurring in fish
communities exploited by commercial fisheries. Selective fishing pressure on more highly valued
components of fish communities, and its indirect effects via trophic interactions, are amongst the key
factors proposed to explain these changes....
Seafood consumption has been traditionally very important in Spain (about 36.5 kg per capita
consumed in 2003). Hake (merluza) is the main fish species consumed in quantity and value
terms in Spain. But commercialised as hake can be found several fish species and presentations.
When many papers focus on product...
Tilapia exports to the US have been claimed to double in the last three years following the two bans on
Vietnamese catfish imports in November 2001 and June 2003. The aim of these bans was to restrict
imports from the major exporter of Catfish (Vietnam) reducing competition for US catfish...
In 2004, United States (U.S.) shrimp landings comprised 11% of shrimp available to the domestic market. Asian and
South America shrimp imports to the U.S. began reaching record levels in 2001, following European Union tariffs
on Asian shrimp. The increased import supply resulted in drastic decline of ex-vessel and wholesale...
In the world, Japan has a special place in the fish consumption, as Japanese people are among the most important consumers of aquatic food products, and Japan ranks first as fish importer, for supplying about half of its market. Thus the changes in the Japanese seafood market are susceptible to...
In the context of the restriction of production, French agriculture modifies its activities by developing multifunctionality. This concept translates the fact that, beyond the saleable production of agricultural and food processing products, the agricultural activity fulfills other functions: economic, social, environmental. Multifunctionality of agriculture is implemented in a number of...
Recent increases in imports of catfish and crawfish have caused concern as to their impact on domestic
prices. This study identifies the linkages between imports of these goods and U.S. producer prices.
Increases in imports of catfish are shown to decrease related domestic prices. However, recent trends
show a simultaneous...
The Virginia Fishery Resource Grant Program funded a two year grow-out trial to assess the
feasibility and economic activity associated with proposed introduction of non-native oysters in
Virginia's Chesapeake Bay waters. This paper summarizes the results of the trials which were
conducted to address two main objectives: determine the economic...
Historically, the fishery has been the mainstay of the Newfoundland economy. Inevitably, its importance declined as
economic development proceeded, but was still quite substantial at the time of Confederation with Canada in 1949.
Since then, however, the census figures show a precipitous decline in the role of the fishery in...
When dealing with time, a fishery manager faces a major difficulty. On an N-period time horizon, should he follow
several short-run objectives for every n sub-period, or should he consider only the long-run objective? If a European
manager trying to implement a stock recovery plan prefers to achieve the long-run...
In multispecies fisheries managed with individual fishery quotas (IFQs), fishers targeting certain species often have
insufficient quota to cover other jointly caught species. New Zealand employs a unique dual price-quantity system to
address this problem. In lieu of acquiring quota, fishers can opt to pay a fee per unit of...
This paper deals with the economic impact of an aquatic invasive alien species on a coastal shellfish
fishery. A slipper-limpet (Crepidula fornicata ) was accidentally imported some decades ago, has
established and is spreading in the bay of Saint-Brieuc (France). This exotic species is acting as a space
competitor for...
By using harvest data for a North East Arctic Cod Fishery in the Barents Sea for the years 1971-1985 a monthly and
daily dimensional harvest function is estimated. The seasonal factors are investigated using dummy variables. The
results indicate that the seasonality is embodied in the catch ability coefficient of...
Fisher behavior can be divided into choices made in the short term (i.e. tactics) and choices made in the long-mid term (i.e. strategies). Random utility modeling (RUM) is well suited for the empirical analysis of these issues. In this paper, RUM is applied to a number of EU fisheries in...
This paper discusses the connection between the concepts of fishing effort and separability of the
variables in a general fisheries production function of the Translog form. It compares the results
of the discussion with the Cobb-Douglas and Constant Elasticity of Substitution forms. It
concludes that to assume unconditionally that some...
This paper proposes a two-stage method to estimate a generalized Gordon-Schaefer model,
using heterogeneous fishing data in the logbook. A Cobb-Douglas production function is consistently
estimated in the first stage by means of the ‘within period estimator’. A stock index
is constructed and used to estimate the logistic growth model...
The concept of natural resource rents is much used in the natural resource and fisheries
economics literature. It is therefore somewhat surprising that in this same literature it is difficult
to find a clear definition of either natural resource rents or fisheries rents. Possibly, as a result,
the concept is...
We study the combined effects of periodically varying carrying capacity and survival rates on the fish population in the ocean (sea). We introduce a new delay differential equation model with a control parameter which describes how fish are harvested.
We consider a predation function as the function of the delayed...
This study investigates the adjustment process of labor in the fishing industry of the Spanish regions
(Autonomous Communities). The analysis is based on a dynamic model applied to a panel of the 10
coastal regions in Spain for the period covering 1965 to 2001. A translog labor demand equation is...
Oregon ocean shrimp annual harvest relies on the successful recruitment and growth of age one shrimp. Changes in oceanic conditions appear to have major impacts on recruitment, spatial abundance and growth rates. Successful recruitment has been identified with the timing and strength of the spring transition generating oceanic conditions favorable...
Though long a standard technique in engineering and medical research, duration or survival analysis has
become common in economics only in recent decades, and in fisheries economics we are aware of only
one previous study. In this paper, we demonstrate the usefulness of duration analysis to understanding
fleet dynamics, specifically...
This paper presents a new bio-economic simulation model for the Italian fisheries developed as a part of a project financed by The General Directorate for Fisheries and Aquaculture (under the Italian Ministry of Forestry and Agriculture Policies). The main objective of the model is to measure the effects of different...
A central objective for UK Department for International Development (DFID) funded research on
renewable natural resource systems has been that the research commissioned results in significant positive
developmental impacts. This paper describes the outcomes of activities employed by the DFID funded
Fisheries Management Science Programme to assess the developmental impact...
Many Fraser River sockeye salmon stocks show large cycles in abundance from year to year, but the causes of these
cycles are not clear. As a result, these stocks have historically been managed under the hypothesis of cyclic dominance,
i.e., maintaining the cyclic behaviour of the stocks. Biological studies and...
The report is an analysis of the resource rent in the Swedish fishery, produced as a contribution to the new strategic plan for the Swedish fishery in the years 2007-2013 according to the draft EU regulation for the EFF (European Fishery Fund). A model has been produced based on linear...
The UN MDG of 2000 include poverty eradication, protection of our common environment, and human
rights, democracy, and good governance. Fisheries have been expected to contribute to meet these goals,
especially after the UNCLOS III. As a result, many developing countries have over-invested in fisheries
with environmental degradation by industrial...
This paper presents the findings of a field survey carried out within small scale fishing communities on the island of Zanzibar in 2004. The study was designed to assess the impact of the Menai Bay marine protected area on the livelihoods of fishing households located within its boundaries using the...
It is now widely recognized that property rights based fisheries management regimes are well
suited for generating efficiency in fisheries. Apart from access licences, which are very low
quality property rights, individual quotas (IQs) and individual transferable quotas (ITQs) are the
most widely applicable and, indeed, the most commonly applied...
By 1992, the Canadian cod populations collapsed and
a moratorium on fishing was declared, which
remains in place until today. Ecologists suspect that the marine ecosystem at the Canadian east coast
has
shifted towards a new regime, where cod stocks remain at a low level while other species biomass levels,...
Over 90% of global aquaculture production comes fro
m the Asia Pacific region. International trade in live
aquatic animals and the intensification of aquaculture practices over the past several years have led
to
emergence and spread of several aquatic animal diseases in the region. At the same time, while the...
Fish stocks are facing increasing threat of extinct
ion partly due to the use of illegal fishing methods. In developing
coastal countries where fishing activities are the
mainstay of the population along the coast, livelihoods are being
directly threatened. Although a number of studies unearthing factors determining supply of violation...
With the development of the ecosystem approach to f
isheries (EAF), fisheries management is
increasingly required to deal with multiple, often
conflicting objectives. In this context, the
stochastic co-viability approach has been proposed
as a useful modeling framework as it allows
for the combined representation of complex fisherie
s dynamics,...
Export economy has been interrupted in shrimp/prawn, the second largest earning source of Bangladesh due to detection of Nitrofuran in export ed prawns to the EU countries. Around 100 consignments of frozen prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) were rejected at the EU borders between 2005 and 2009. Bangladesh exported shrimp and fish...
The “Lake Chad” is one of the world, largest and most historical Lake located in the Sahel region of
Africa (lat. 12:30 N to 14:30 N and long. 13:00E to
15:30 E ) which is one of the most vulnerable regions
to climate change bordering North-Eastern Nigeria,
North-Western Cameroon, South-Eastern...
The study was carried out in Anyigba, North central
Nigeria to analyze the distribution, marketing and
consumption
of sea food. It specifically sought to describe the
socio-economic characters of the fish marketers and consumers,
identify the distribution channel of fish, the species of fish sold and consumed‚ and preferences in...
In Europe, the United Kingdom is one of the top nine producers of trout. Scotland accounts for
approximately 50% of total production in the UK. This shows that the Scottish trout farming sector is
important both at the local and has relevance within the larger context of pan-European trout production....
Employing an experimental approach, we examine whet
her the uncertainty on the fish/outputs price affects the
choice of vessel sizes of fishers under an ITQ scheme. Our experiment consists of two parts. In the first part,
subjects answer ten questions. The purpose is to extract the risk preference of each...
As many cases of tropical small-scale fisheries, the French Guiana coastal fishery is characterized by
the
high fish biodiversity of its ecosystem, the weak selectivity of the fleets exploiting the resources,
the
heterogeneity of the vessels in term of size and fishing techniques. The traditional tools used to manage
fisheries...
Africa has traditionally depended on capture fisheries for most of its fish and fish products. However,
with capture fisheries dwindling and human population increasing, alternative sources have become
necessary. Although practiced for many decades, East African fish farming has been funded by donors
whose main interest has been on subsistence...
In aquaculture and fisheries, the value chain consists of all the various processes and activities involved in
bringing fish, shellfish, and aquatic plants to market. In some regions it can be an indicator of the
economic welfare of poor communities involved in small-scale operations. In order to maximize
smallholder participation...
The Aquaculture & Fisheries Collaborative Research Support Program (AquaFish CRSP) fosters the development of technological innovations in aquaculture and fisheries to provide direct results for increased production and decreased environmental impacts in host countries. Ensuring the availability and accessibility of successful technologies through in ventive dissemination techniques is a high...
The contribution of
fish and fisheries products in the economy of Horn
of Africa countries is substantial to food security,
livelihoods, employment and foreign currency earnings. However, production is mostly characterised by
artisanal fishermen who rely on local and cross border trading conducted through informal and unofficial
market channels and...
The trade of fish and fish products in Africa is expanding significantly as a function of increased demand for fish in
the region and across the world. Several factors which could be attributed to the rising trend include
increasing fish
consumption due to population growth, health awareness, dwindling production from...
The OECD fisheries committee is finalizing a project on the economics of rebuilding fisheries. The focus
of the study has been the economic and institutional aspects of the rebuilding process, and the main
objectives were to identify economic, social and governance components underpinning successful
rebuilding based on the experiences of...
Central Europe is an emerging market for seafood products, with rapidly developing opportunities for foreign direct investment and export. Although Poland in particular is widely regarded as a land of opportunity in the seafood business, surprisingly little effort has been made until now to gain a deeper understanding of the...
Investors in aquaculture are biased against the mangrove areas and prefer to site their farms in the upland parts of Southwest, Nigeria. This study was carried out to compare the yield performance in the two fish farm locations. The tools utilized included descriptive statistics, budgetary and cash flow analyses and...
The introduction of new frozen processed products such as Marine Stewardship Council certified New Zealand hoki into the UK market is providing consumers with options away from the standard choices of cod and haddock. Resource managers all have a stake in successful product endeavors since new exotic seafood choices could...
Fishmeal prices have increased sharply since the mid-2005 and the relationship between the prices of animal and vegetable proteins have become weaker, at least temporarily. This can be explained by a relatively constant fishmeal supply, which have varied around 6-7 million metric tons the last two decades, and an increasing...
A debate about the level of organic contaminants in farmed salmon relative to wild salmon was started with an article published the journal Science in January 2004. Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and other contaminants were found to be significantly higher in farmed salmon than in wild salmon. Moreover, European-raised...
The objective of this paper is to explore eating and shopping habits related to fish across five European countries. A cross sectional consumer survey was carried out in Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands, Poland, and Spain. A total sample of 4800 consumers was obtained, and the sample was representative within each country...