Using X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning to characterize the physical characteristics of soil and sediment cores allows scientists to observe and analyze stratigraphy without destroying the integrity of different layers. Microbiologists often work with geologists to characterize the microbial communities in such cores; however, X-rays are known to be destructive...
Marine sediments are one of the largest habitats for microbial life on earth. These microorganisms play critical roles in biogeochemical cycling both within the subsurface and between the sediment and water columns. However, microbial communities in sediments are highly heterogeneous and the factors defining microbial community structure and metabolic function...
In recent decades the habitat of North American beaver (Castor canadensis) has expanded from boreal forests into pan-Arctic tundra ecosystems. It is unknown how the advance of beavers into Arctic watersheds will impact microbial communities responsible for the mineralization of organic matter (OM), which has implications for carbon cycling. To...
Greenhouse gases effects are a leading contributor to climate change; reducing harmful effects of these gases is important for future generations. Worldwide, household consumption makes up seventy-two percent of greenhouse gas emissions, followed by government consumption at ten percent, and investments at eighteen percent (Hertwich, 2009). In order to understand...
The use of ureolytic bacteria for the remediation of contaminated groundwater aquifers by inducing calcium carbonate precipitation is being studied in order to establish a better understanding of the modeling and prediction of how the bacteria will act in situ. This research has pursued the use of various ureolytic bacteria...
Marine sediments contain an abundance of methane that is biologically produced
and plays a significant role in the global carbon cycle. Microbes responsible for the
carbon cycle in marine sediments, and the processes that they carry out, need to be
characterized in order to fully understand the role of this...
Aquifers are an important storage location and source of fresh groundwater. They may become polluted by a number of contaminants including mobile divalent radionuclides such as strontium-90 which is a byproduct of uranium fission. A method for remediating such divalent radionuclides is sequestration through co-precipitation into calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate...
Microbial-induced calcite (CaCO₃) precipitation (MICP) is a well-known natural phenomenon where microbes precipitate calcite in their environment as a result of metabolic activity. It has recently been of interest as a bioengineered technique to stabilize soils for construction applications. A known metabolic pathway to induce MICP is ureolysis, where introduced...
With rising concentrations of CO₂ in the Earth's atmosphere causing
concern about climate change, many solutions are being presented to
decrease emissions. One of the proposed solutions is to sequester excess
CO₂ in geological formations such as basalt. The deep subsurface is known
to harbor much of the microbial biomass...
Marine sediments are vast sources and reservoirs of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Most of this methane is anaerobically oxidized by archaea before it can reach the overlying ocean, though the efficiency of this process often depends on methane fluxes and mechanisms of fluid transport. Anaerobic methanotrophic archaea, or ANME,...
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Frederick S. Colwell
Abstract
Marine sediments are vast sources and reservoirs of methane
Freshwater systems cycle carbon along a spatial and temporal biogeochemical continuum, across which ecosystem processes contribute to transformations of organic matter (OM). Various ecological constraints impact rates OM transformation and production and consumption of the energetic end of respiration, methane. Microbiological processing and complete reduction of carbon substrates to methane...
Extraction of natural gas from shale formations using the process of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) requires the use of thousands of cubic meters of fluid. Hydraulic fracturing fluids are pumped under pressure into shale formations, fracturing the shale and releasing pockets of trapped gases. When the pressure in a natural gas...
Thirty-two chemoheterotrophic bacteria were isolated from unsaturated subsurface soil samples obtained from ca. 70 m below land surface in a high desert in southeastern Idaho. Most isolates were gram positive (84%) and strict aerobes (79%). Acridine orange direct counts of microbes in one subsurface sample showed lower numbers than similar...
Oregon State laboratories are responsible for a significant portion of the university’s overall resource and energy consumption, and therefore minimizing waste in a sustainable way should be a top priority for the university while aiming for carbon neutrality by 2025. This study addresses major factors that should be considered when...
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Rick Colwell, Committee Member, representing the College of Earth, Ocean, and
Atmospheric
Igneous oceanic crust encompasses ~60% of Earth’s surface and is composed of basalt glass and mafic, ultramafic, and felsic minerals. A vast marine aquifer lies within the crust, exchanging geochemically altered fluids with seawater from the overlying ocean at ridge crests, flanks, seamounts, and outcrops where permeable crust is exposed....
In the last three decades we have learned a great deal about microbes in subsurface environments. Once, these habitats were rarely examined, perhaps because so much of the life that we are concerned with exists at the surface and seems to pace its metabolic and evolutionary rhythms with the overt...
Bacteria and algae isolated from a wastewater oxidation pond were inoculated onto opposing surfaces of double-layer agar plates (Lutri plates) to determine the usefulness of such plates for studying microbial interactions. The altered growth characteristics of various algae depending on the species of bacteria on the adjacent medium surface indicated...
Freshwater cyanobacterial blooms are a nuisance and health threat in the Pacific Northwest. The accepted methods of characterizing these blooms by microscopic cell counts cannot differentiate between toxic and non-toxic strains of the cyanobacterium Microcystis. Also, there is limited understanding of freshwater cyanophage that may control bloom dynamics. In order...
The coast of Oregon is highly dynamic, with beach and dune morphodynamics constantly evolving in response to physical and ecological forcing at scales ranging from seconds to decades and meters to tens of kilometers. Evaluating spatial and temporal trends in shoreline evolution is paramount in understanding and eventually developing a...
The subsurface microbial biosphere in the igneous oceanic crust has implications for global geochemical cycling, early life on Earth, and the search for life on Mars. Microscopic evidence of a subsurface microbial ecosystem includes biotic alteration textures associated with basaltic glass. The exact conditions in the basaltic layer that make...
Ocean circulation is an important component in Earth's climate system. Predicting future climate and circulation changes requires an improved understanding of the past relationship between climate and ocean currents. The neodymium isotope composition (εNd) of water masses is frequently used as a quasi-conservative tracer to reconstruct ocean circulation. The current...
Fungi and Actinobacteria are essential actors in global biogeochemical cycles of carbon and nutrients, and have both been recently appreciated for their roles in marine ecosystems. However, the diversity and distribution of these ubiquitous, but low-abundance microbes in deep-sea habitats remains poorly understood, particularly in chemosynthetic habitats such as methane...
This research examines two of parameters of vectorial capacity for mosquitoes associated with catch basins in Corvallis, Oregon. The parameters of interest were determining 1) abundance of the mosquito species associated with the catch basins and 2) feeding patterns of local mosquito species. Three species of mosquitoes were collected from...
Most data are associated with a place, and many are also associated with a moment in time, a time interval, or another linked temporal component. Spatiotemporal data (i.e., data with elements of both space and time) can be used to assess movement or change over time in a particular location,...
Bench scale column studies were used to examine the partitioning of microorganisms between groundwater
and a geologic medium and to examine the effect of hydrogeology (i.e., porous- versus fracture-flow) on
organism partitioning. Replicated columns were constructed with intact basalt core segments that contained
natural fractures and with the same basalt...
Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 204 to Hydrate Ridge, located on the continental slope offshore Oregon (USA), was the first drilling expedition dedicated to understanding gas hydrate processes in accretionary complexes and provided a testbed for a number of different techniques for estimating the gas hydrate content of sediments. It...
Genomic libraries derived from environmental DNA (metagenomic libraries) are useful for characterizing
uncultured microorganisms. However, conventional library-screening techniques permit characterization of
relatively few environmental clones. Here we describe a novel approach for characterization of a metagenomic
library by hybridizing the library with DNA from a set of groundwater isolates, reference...
Methane hydrate found in marine sediments is thought to contain gigaton quantities of methane and is
considered an important potential fuel source and climate-forcing agent. Much of the methane in hydrates is
biogenic, so models that predict the presence and distribution of hydrates require accurate rates of in situ
methanogenesis....
The use of remote sensing techniques in coastal science and engineering has rapidly increased in the past few decades. This dissertation outlines new remote sensing tools using two remote sensing technologies (lidar and X-band marine radar) along with two nearshore hydrodynamic and morphodynamic analyses supported or motivated by these remote...
Continental shelves located along eastern boundary currents occupy relatively small volumes of the world’s oceans, yet are responsible for a large proportion of global primary production. The Oregon coast is among these ecosystems. Recent analyses of dissolved oxygen at shallow depths in the water column has suggested increasing episodes of...
Increased water temperatures and thermal loading due to anthropogenic inputs has
been shown to negatively impact the lifecycles of aquatic organisms in riverine
systems (Poole and Berman 2001; Hannah, Malcolm et al. 2004; Quinn, Gagne et al.
2004). The studies enclosed in this thesis evaluate and quantify the heat fluxes...
The degradation of organic carbon in subseafloor sediments on continental margins contributes to the largest reservoir of methane on Earth. Sediments in the Andaman Sea are composed of ~ 1% marine-derived organic carbon and biogenic methane is present. Our objective was to determine microbial abundance and diversity in sediments that...
Sporosarcina pasteurii is known to produce calcite or biocement in the presence of urea and Ca²⁺. Herein, we report the use of novel ultramicrosensors such as pH, Ca²⁺, and redox sensors, along with a scanning electrochemical microscope (SECM), to monitor a real-time, bacteria-mediated urea hydrolysis process and subsequent changes in...
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, Yvan Allau2, Circe
Verba3, Frederick Colwell2, Marta E. Torres2, Dipankar Koley1,*
1 Department of
Sporosarcina pasteurii is known to produce calcite or biocement in the presence of urea and Ca²⁺. Herein, we report the use of novel ultramicrosensors such as pH, Ca²⁺, and redox sensors, along with a scanning electrochemical microscope (SECM), to monitor a real-time, bacteria-mediated urea hydrolysis process and subsequent changes in...
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. Thurber,b Yvan Allau,b
Circe Verba,c FrederickColwell,b Marta E. Torresb and Dipankar Koley*a
Microbial communities in cores obtained from methane hydrate-bearing deep marine sediments (down to more than 300 m below the seafloor) in the forearc basin of the Nankai Trough near Japan were characterized with cultivation-dependent and -independent techniques. Acridine orange direct count data indicated that cell numbers generally decreased with sediment...
Sporosarcina pasteurii is known to produce calcite or biocement in the presence of urea and Ca²⁺. Herein, we report the use of novel ultramicrosensors such as pH, Ca²⁺, and redox sensors, along with a scanning electrochemical microscope (SECM), to monitor a real-time, bacteria-mediated urea hydrolysis process and subsequent changes in...
The biogeochemical processes that occur in marine sediments on continental margins are complex; however, from one perspective they can be considered with respect to three geochemical zones based on the presence and form of methane: sulfate-methane transition (SMTZ), gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ), and free gas zone (FGZ). These geochemical...
The bacteria colonizing geologic core sections (attached) were contrasted with those found suspended in the groundwater (unattached) by examining the microbiology of 16 depth-paired core and groundwater samples using a suite of culture-independent and culture-dependent analyses. One hundred twenty-two meters was continuously cored from a buried chalcopyrite ore hosted in...
We isolated a methanogen from deep in the sediments of the Nankai Trough off the eastern coast of Japan.
At the sampling site, the water was 950 m deep and the sediment core was collected at 247 m below the sediment
surface. The isolated methanogen was named Nankai-1. Cells of...
PCR amplification, restriction fragment length polymorphism, and phylogenetic analysis of oxygenase genes
were used for the characterization of in situ methane- and ammonia-oxidizing bacteria from free-living and
attached communities in the Eastern Snake River Plain aquifer. The following three methane monooxygenase
(MMO) PCR primer sets were used: A189-A682, which amplifies...
The vast marine deep biosphere consists of microbial habitats within sediment, pore waters, upper basaltic crust and the fluids that circulate throughout it. A wide range of temperature, pressure, pH, and electron donor and acceptor conditions exists—all of which can combine to affect carbon and nutrient cycling and result in...
Long-term ecological data are crucial in helping ecologists understand ecosystem function and environmental change. Nevertheless, these kinds of data sets are difficult to analyze because they are usually large, multivariate, and spatiotemporal. Although existing analysis tools such as statistical methods and spreadsheet software permit rigorous tests of pre-conceived hypotheses and...
Coring/logging data and physical property measurements from International Ocean Discovery Program Expedition 349 are integrated with, and correlated to, reflection seismic data to map seismic sequence boundaries and facies of the central basin and neighboring regions of the South China Sea. First-order sequence boundaries are interpreted, which are Oligocene/Miocene, middle...
Combined analyses of deep tow magnetic anomalies and International Ocean Discovery Program Expedition 349 cores show that initial seafloor spreading started around 33 Ma in the northeastern South China Sea (SCS), but varied slightly by 1-2 Myr along the northern continent-ocean boundary (COB). A southward ridge jump of ∼20 km...
Greenhouse gases effects are a leading contributor to climate change; reducing harmful effects of these gases is important for future generations. Worldwide, household consumption makes up seventy-two percent of greenhouse gas emissions, followed by government consumption at ten percent, and investments at eighteen percent (Hertwich, 2009). In order to understand...
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By Kimberly Melendez
F. Colwell, Ph.D.1, R. Gonzalez, MIDP2 Oregon State
University, Corvallis
Greenhouse gases effects are a leading contributor to climate change; reducing harmful effects of these gases is important for future generations. Worldwide, household consumption makes up seventy-two percent of greenhouse gas emissions, followed by government consumption at ten percent, and investments at eighteen percent (Hertwich, 2009). In order to understand...
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FrederickColwell, Mentor, representing College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Science
Bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata (Pursh) DC.) is one of the most widely distributed shrubs in western North America. Its value as a browse species has been recognized for more than half a century. Recent concern for the ecological significance of shrubs in natural ecosystems and the serious depletion of many big...
Extraction of natural gas from shale formations using the process of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) requires the use of thousands of cubic meters of fluid. Hydraulic fracturing fluids are pumped under pressure into shale formations, fracturing the shale and releasing pockets of trapped gases. When the pressure in a natural gas...
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. FrederickColwell and Dr. Andrew Thurber
Dr. Marta Torres
Dr. Field and Wanda Crannell
Jessie Wishart
Compounds belonging to the vitamin K family possess anti-hemorrhagic
property, and are used in treating patients suffering
from hypoprothrombinemia and obstructive jaundice. Some of
these compounds also exhibit marked antimicrobial activity toward
various microorganisms. Vitamin K₅, 4-amino-2-methyl-
1-naphthol hydrochloride, a water-soluble analog of vitamin K
has been shown to possess...
Although much has been learned about the comparative
nodulating behavior of simple mixtures of rhizobial strains
under non-soil situations, it is unclear how these findings
relate to the factors influencing nodulation success by the
complex mixtures of strains found within soil-borne
rhizobial populations. Information on the structure and
physiological behavior...
For the past six years a bacterial infection has been the cause
of large losses of adult, spawning, American shad (Alosa
sapidissima) in the Coos, Millicoma and Smith Rivers of Oregon.
There was a sizable commercial fishery for shad in these rivers
and losses of fish due to this infection...
Vitamin K₅, 4-amino-2-methyl-1-naphthol hydrochloride, a
water soluble analog of vitamin K has been shown to possess an antimicrobial
activity toward many bacteria, molds, and yeast. Much
of the work reported in the literature is on its use as a food preservative,
and it was the purpose of this study to...
Oregon Biography Index is intended to serve primarily as a starting point in locating biographies of Oregonians. We have indexed 47 historical volumes which are either entirely devoted to biographies or have large self-contained biographical sections. The profiles in the books vary widely in accuracy and detail. Birth dates of...
Extraction of natural gas from shale formations using the process of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) requires the use of thousands of cubic meters of fluid. Hydraulic fracturing fluids are pumped under pressure into shale formations, fracturing the shale and releasing pockets of trapped gases. When the pressure in a natural gas...
The marine psychrophilic bacterium Vibrio marinus MP-4
possessed a maximum temperature and hydrostatic pressure of
20 C and 425 atm for growth. The effects of temperatures of 21 and
25 C and hydrostatic pressures of 200, 400, 500, and 1,000 atm on
protein, RNA and DNA synthesis by V. marinus...
The relationship of temperature and salinity to protein synthesis
was determined for cells of Vibrio marinus, MP-1. Protein synthesis
was measured by the incorporation of radioactive proline into
hot trichloroacetic acid precipitable material. At all salinities protein
synthesis occurred at 15°C and 20°C but not at 25°C. The critical
temperature...
Vibrio parahaemolyticus, a naturally occurring halophilic pathogen, is seasonally abundant in marine and estuarine environments. It is also the leading cause of gastroenteritis in humans world-wide. Numerous outbreak incidences associated with the pathogenic Vibrio parahaemolyticus contaminations in oyster products have raised public-health concerns as well as economic challenges to the...
This compilation of theses and dissertations (a part of the OSU Bibliographic Series) for the period 1970-1977 reflects this university's emphasis on research and graduate study. It may be viewed as an indicator of the contributions made to the state of Oregon through graduate study and research at Oregon State...
The boundary between ice and basalt on Earth is an analog for some near-surface environments of Mars. We investigated neutrophilic iron-oxidizing microorganisms from the basalt-ice interface in a lava tube from the Oregon Cascades with perennial ice. One of the isolates (Pseudomonas sp. HerB) can use ferrous iron Fe(II) from...
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olivine sand. We thank
Gus Frederick for assistance with the fieldwork. Julie
Donnelly-Nolan provided the
Vibrio coralliilyticus (Vcor) is a bacterial pathogen that is well adapted to shellfish hatcheries and is very pathogenic to the larvae of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Vcor has been associated with several large scale larval mortality events in the Pacific Northwest that interrupt the supply of seed oysters available...
Theoretical studies and experimental results are presented for the rotational motion of molecule's in crystalline solids. The group theory is solved for molecules of any symmetry matrix isolated at a site in a crystal field of any symmetry. As the potential terrier to rotation of the molecule relative to the...
In 1955 one oceanography report was issued by Oregon State University. The School of Oceanography now issues between 35 and 50 reports per year. This compilation lists in chronological order all oceanographic reports published through 1973. It also lists theses for which degrees were awarded between 1962 and 1973. Both...
The boundary between ice and basalt on Earth is an analog for some near-surface environments of Mars. We investigated neutrophilic iron-oxidizing microorganisms from the basalt-ice interface in a lava tube from the Oregon Cascades with perennial ice. One of the isolates (Pseudomonas sp. HerB) can use ferrous iron Fe(II) from...
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. We thank Gus Frederick for assistance with the field work. Julie 430
Donnelly-Nolan provided the
Purpose of the Study:
The School Health Fair is an experiential method used to supplement classroom theory in a teacher preparation course at the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse (UWL). The purpose of this study was to determine how this method affected student attitude toward teaching. The following null hypotheses were...
The study of the diversity of multivariate objects shares common characteristics across disciplines, including ecology and organizational management. Nevertheless, experts in these two disciplines have adopted somewhat separate diversity concepts and analysis techniques, limiting the ability of potentially sharing and cross comparing these concerns. Moreover, while complex diversity data may...
Dental plaque is one of the well-characterized biofilms in the human body. Oral bacterial species play vital roles in maintaining healthy bacterial homeostasis as well as causing oral infections. Many of the oral diseases are caused by opportunistic pathogens, and therefore, the bacterial metabolic activities become important in dictating their...
Recognizing the importance of native black cottonwood-dominated riparian
forests is especially important to preserve, protect, and manage for biodiversity in
the Willamette River Valley. Species composition, structure, and biomass along a
successional gradient from stand initiation to late succession of black cottonwood
(Populus balsamfera L. subsp. trichocarpa (T. & G.)...
Sagebrush steppe ecosystems in the Great Basin have become increasingly threatened by the proliferation of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.), an invasive annual grass. Diverse sagebrush and perennial bunchgrass landscapes can be converted to homogenous cheatgrass grasslands mainly through the effects of fire. Although the consequences of this conversion are well...
Revised edition of the author's "Vegetation of Oregon and Washington", originally published by the U.S. Forest Service in 1973. Reprinted with new bibliographic supplement by the OSU Press in 1988.
Soils representative of several landscape units in the H. J.
Andrews Experimental Forest, Western Cascade Range, were sampled,
analyzed, and tentatively classified. Genetic inferences were
drawn relating soils to landscape position and other factors of soil
formation. Descriptive information and nutrient capital data were
provided to support ecosystem modelling efforts...
Species' distributions across the landscape are perhaps the least understood yet most conspicuous features of life on earth. Ecologists have long studied species' distributions; yet, many questions remain about why species occur where they do. Such questions persist largely because species' distributions are complex systems with challenging properties like non-linearity,...
The last century has experienced a marked increase in emerging infectious disease (EID, hereafter) – jeopardizing human, domestic animal, and wildlife health. EIDs are commonly associated with spillover from one host species into a novel host species, with many destructive diseases, for both livestock and wildlife, emerging at the wildlife-livestock...
California's Central Valley agricultural landscapes provide several important wintering regions for Pacific Flyway sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) populations; however, the value of those regions is being compromised by urban expansion, other developments, and conversions to incompatible crop types. Greater (G. c. tabida) and lesser sandhill cranes (G. c. canadensis) both...
Biodiversity continues to decline in the face of increasing anthropogenic pressures such as habitat destruction, exploitation, pollution and introduction of alien species. Existing global databases of species’ threat status or population time series are dominated by charismatic species. The collation of datasets with broad taxonomic and biogeographic extents, and that...
Many of the natural resource problems facing man in the present
era are so large and complicated that no one discipline provides an
adequate approach for their solutions. As an example, the relationships
of man to the land resource base can best be understood when
they are considered holistically rather...
The feasibility of utilizing LANDSAT MSS data in assessing surface cover types and areal extent of clearcut and shelterwood cut harvest sites in southern Oregon was investigated. The research utilized extensive 'ground truth' information to evaluate the LANDSAT data. A three faceted ground truth collection scheme analyzed 1) U.S. Forest...
This dissertation investigated potential ecological limitations to seedling regeneration in young, seasonally dry, evergreen forest restoration plantations in northern Thailand. We explored whether recruitment of colonizing tree species in the restoration plantations can be attributed to seed dispersal mode (i.e. abiotic or animal dispersal) and seed size. We did this...
The European hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) is a tree nut crop that is important in Oregon, which produces 99% of the United States’ hazelnuts but only 5% of the world’s supply. In order to maintain this market share, farmers in Oregon need cultivars that produce high quality nuts, mature early,...
Systems biology is a powerful approach which considers and sheds light on all of the puzzle pieces which make up complex biological processes, and is an effective alternative to unraveling these processes using traditional molecular approaches alone. It is a natural companion approach for computational biology, which leverages the power...
At a time of rapid global change, a socio-ecological system (SES) approach can provide a framework through which to quantify and communicate the risks and uncertainties of coupled human-natural systems. Islands, and tropical coral reef islands in particular, can be excellent models for SES research since they may be considered...
Bitterbrush [Purshia tridentata (Pursh) DC] plants were burned or
clipped, fall and spring, under different soil moisture conditions on
two sites in east-central Oregon. Treatments, on plants of an erect
growth form on the Juniperus/Artemisia-Purshia site resulted in 38% of
the fall-clipped and 40% of the spring-clipped plants sprouting. None...
Infiltration, soil erosion, nitrogen loss and soil profile
characteristics were measured on 36 sites representing land occupied
by Artemisia tridentata ssp. tridentate, wyomingensis, and vaseyana.
Infiltration, soil erosion, and nitrogen loss were strongly correlated
but highly variable. Soil loss, but not infiltration or nitrogen
loss was significantly different between subspecies....
Oceanic crust covers nearly 70% of the Earth's surface, of which, the upper,
sediment layer is estimated to harbor substantial microbial biomass. Marine crust;
however, extends several kilometers beyond this surficial layer, and includes the
basalt and gabbro layers. In particular, the basalt layer has high permeabilities which
allows for...
In this dissertation we consider two application specific flow and transport models in porous media at multiple scales: 1) methane gas transport models for hydrate formation and dissociation in the subsurface under two-phase conditions, and 2) coupled flow and biomass-nutrient model for biofilm growth in complex geometries with biofilm, and...
Potentially relevant literature for the years 1990-1999 was identified by (a) conducting keyword searches of computerized bibliographic databases, especially CAB Abstracts and Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts, (b) reading through the tables of contents of a few especially relevant journals, (c) searching the internet for pertinent bibliographies, and (d) to...
Many marine bivalves are sensitive to ocean acidification (OA) stress and often show heightened sensitivity during brief early larval and post-larval life stages, potentially leading to population bottlenecks. Most of the evidence to date has been collected in laboratory experiments that focused on physiological responses at the organismal level under...